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Italian unification ((イタリア語:Unificazione italiana)), also known as Risorgimento ((:risordʒiˈmento), meaning ''the Resurgence''), was the political and social movement that consolidated different states of the Italian peninsula into the single state of the Kingdom of Italy in the 19th century. Despite a lack of consensus on the exact dates for the beginning and end of this period, many scholars agree that the process began in 1815 with the Congress of Vienna and the end of Napoleonic rule, and was completed in 1871 when Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Some of the ''terre irredente'' did not, however, join the Kingdom of Italy until after World War I with the Treaty of Saint-Germain. Some nationalists see the 3 November 1918 Armistice of Villa Giusti as the completion of unification.〔Arnaldi, Girolamo : ''Italy and Its Invaders.'' Harvard University Press, 2005. Page 194. ISBN 0-674-01870-2〕 ==Background== After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman province of Italy remained united under the Ostrogothic Kingdom and later disputed between the Kingdom of the Lombards and the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire. After conquest by the Frankish Empire, the title of King of Italy merged with the office of Holy Roman Emperor. Since the Emperor was an absentee foreigner who had little concern for the governance of Italy as a state, Italy gradually developed into a system of city-states. This system lasted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the early modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the major powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire (later Austria) and France. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, Italian writers such as Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli and Francesco Guicciardini had expressed their opposition to foreign domination. For example, Petrarch's ''Italia Mia'' stated that the "ancient valor in Italian hearts is not yet dead". Four verses from ''Italia Mia'' were quoted in Niccolò Machiavelli's ''The Prince'', which looked for a political leader who would unite Italy "to free her from the barbarians". Some historians and scholars consider the treaty of the Italic League, in 1454, or the 15th century foreign policy of Cosimo De Medici and Lorenzo De Medici, as harbingers for national unity. A sense of Italian national identity was reflected in Gian Rinaldo Carli's ''Della Patria degli Italiani'', written in 1764, a very famous "much-quoted article telling how a stranger entered a café in Milan and puzzled its occupants by saying that he was neither a foreigner nor a Milanese. 'Then what are you?' they asked. 'I am an Italian,' he explained." The Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars destroyed the old structures of feudalism in Italy. The new French Republic supported the spread of republican principles. The institution of republican governments promoted citizenship over the rule of the royal families, primarily the Bourbons and Habsburgs, and set the stage for the appearance of nationalist sentiment in Italy, which greatly influenced the course of European history (see Revolutions of 1830 and Revolutions of 1848). The various principalities and states were replaced by sister republics. Nationalism increased in the early 19th century, when Italy, like much of Europe, fell under the sway of Napoleon. In 1805, Napoleon endeavoured to attach the Italian heritage to France again and was crowned king of Italy with the Iron Crown of Lombardy at the Milan Cathedral. As Napoleon's reign began to fail, the rulers he had installed tried to keep their thrones by feeding nationalistic sentiments, setting the stage for the revolutions to come. Among these monarchs were the viceroy of Italy, Eugène de Beauharnais, and the king of Naples, Joachim Murat. De Beauharnais tried to get Austrian approval for his succession to the new Kingdom of Italy. On 30 March 1815, Murat issued the Rimini Proclamation, which called on Italians to revolt against their Austrian occupiers. Another important figure of this period was Francesco Melzi d'Eril, serving as vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic (1802–1805) and consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France, the Congress of Vienna (1815) was convened to redraw the map of Europe. In Italy, the Congress restored the pre-Napoleonic patchwork of independent governments, either directly ruled or strongly influenced by the prevailing European powers, particularly Austria. At the time, the struggle for Italian unification was perceived to be waged primarily against the Austrian Empire and the Habsburgs, since they directly controlled the predominantly Italian-speaking northeastern part of present-day Italy and were, together, the most powerful force against unification. The Austrian Empire vigorously repressed nationalist sentiment growing on the Italian peninsula, as well as in the other parts of Habsburg domains. The Austrian diplomat Klemens von Metternich, an influential diplomat at the Congress of Vienna, stated that the word ''Italy'' was nothing more than "a geographic expression". Artistic and literary sentiment also turned towards nationalism; Vittorio Alfieri and Niccolò Tommaseo are generally considered two great literary precursors of Italian nationalism, but the most famous of proto-nationalist works was Alessandro Manzoni's ''I promessi sposi'' (''The Betrothed''). Some read this novel as a thinly veiled allegorical critique of Austrian rule. The novel was published in 1827 and extensively revised in the following years. The 1840 version of ''I Promessi Sposi'' used a standardized version of the Tuscan dialect, a conscious effort by the author to provide a language and force people to learn it.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=DigiTool – Results – Full )〕 Those in favour of unification also faced opposition from the Holy See, particularly after failed attempts to broker a confederation with the Papal States, which would have left the Papacy with some measure of autonomy over the region. The pope at the time, Pius IX, feared that giving up power in the region could mean the persecution of Italian Catholics. Even among those who wanted to see the peninsula unified as one country, different groups could not agree on what form a unified state would take. Vincenzo Gioberti, a Piedmontese priest, had suggested a confederation of Italian states under rulership of the Pope. His book, ''Of the Moral and Civil Primacy of the Italians'', was published in 1843 and created a link between the Papacy and the Risorgimento. Carlo Cattaneo wanted the unification of Italy under a federal republic while Cesare Balbo supported a confederation of separate Italian states led by Piedmont. One of the most influential revolutionary groups was the Carbonari (coalmongers), a secret organization formed in Southern Italy early in the 19th century. Inspired by the principles of the French Revolution, its members were mainly drawn from the middle class and intellectuals. After the Congress of Vienna divided the Italian peninsula among the European powers, the ''Carbonari'' movement spread into the Papal States, the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. The revolutionaries were so feared that the reigning authorities passed an ordinance condemning to death anyone who attended a Carbonari meeting. The society, however, continued to exist and was at the root of many of the political disturbances in Italy from 1820 until after unification. The ''Carbonari'' condemned Napoleon III − who, as a young man, had fought on the side of the Carbonari − to death for failing to unite Italy, and the group almost succeeded in assassinating him in 1858. Many leaders of the unification movement were at one time members of this organization. Many leading revolutionaries wanted a republic, but eventually it was a king and his chief minister who had the power to unite the Italian states as a monarchy. Two prominent radical figures in the unification movement were Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi. The most conservative constitutional monarchic figures included Count Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II, who would later become the first king of a united Italy. Mazzini's activity in revolutionary movements caused him to be imprisoned soon after he joined. While in prison, he concluded that Italy could − and therefore should − be unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent, and republican nation with Rome as its capital. After Mazzini's release in 1831, he went to Marseille, where he organized a new political society called ''La Giovine Italia'' (Young Italy). The new society, whose motto was "God and the People", sought the unification of Italy. Garibaldi, a native of Nice (then part of the Kingdom of Sardinia), participated in an uprising in Piedmont in 1834, was sentenced to death, and escaped to South America. He spent fourteen years there, taking part in several wars and learning the art of guerrilla warfare, and returned to Italy in 1848.〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Risorgimento )〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Italian unification」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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